LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4084.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.56712/latam.v5i4.2550

Oral epithelial cells of schoolchildren exposed to air

pollution may develop cytotoxic and genotoxic damage

Daños citotóxicos y genotóxicos en células epiteliales orales de escolares

expuestos a la contaminación atmosférica

Marco Antonio García Zarate

margarci@cicese.mx

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3293-3000

Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education of Ensenada, B. C. Applied Physics Department

Ensenada Baja California – México

María Evarista Arellano García

evarista.arellano@uabc.edu.mx

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0997-6902

Autonomous University of Baja California, Science Faculty

Ensenada Baja California – México

Zayre Ivonne González Acevedo

zgonzale@cicese.edu.mx

https://orcid.org/000-0003-3293-0563

Center for Scientific Research and Higher Education of Ensenada, B. C. Earth Science Division

Ensenada Baja California – México

Olivia Torres Bugarín

olivia.torres@edu.uag.mx

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4541

Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara. Unidad Académica de Ciencias de la Salud, Facultad de Medicina

Guadalajara, Jalisco – México

Artículo recibido: 12 de agosto de 2024. Aceptado para publicación: 26 de agosto de 2024.

Conflictos de Interés: Ninguno que declarar.

Abstract

As petrol stations emit pollutants into the atmosphere, their proximity to schools can affect air quality

both inside and outside classrooms. School-age children, who spend five to seven hours a day in

classrooms and playgrounds during the school year, may be at risk of inhaling potentially harmful

gases and particles, which could have a negative impact on their health and academic performance.

A biomonitoring study was carried out on 143 children from three schools. Two of the schools were

considered to be exposed to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and were located 50 and 300 metres

away from petrol stations. The other school, which was not considered to be exposed, was located

450 metres away. With the exception of MN, the biomarkers of genotoxic damage were generally

higher (p>0.05) in the school located 50 metres from a petrol station than in the control group, although

the results were less clear in the school located 300 metres away. For all biomarkers (KR, CC, PN and

KL), the school 50 metres from the source of emissions had higher levels of cytotoxicity (p <0.05). This

is the first study to link exposure to volatile hydrocarbons in petrol to genotoxic damage in children,

and it strongly suggests that urban planning laws should be changed to halt the decline in children's

health.

Keywords: volatile organic compounds, micronuclei, nuclear abnormalities, gas stations, air

pollution

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4085.

Resumen

Dado que las gasolineras emiten contaminantes a la atmósfera, su proximidad a las escuelas puede

afectar a la calidad del aire tanto dentro como fuera de las aulas. Los niños en edad escolar, que pasan

entre cinco y siete horas al día en aulas y patios de recreo durante el curso escolar, pueden correr el

riesgo de inhalar gases y partículas potencialmente nocivos, lo que podría repercutir negativamente

en su salud y su rendimiento académico. Se realizó un estudio de biomonitorización en 143 niños de

tres colegios. Dos de los colegios se consideraron expuestos a compuestos orgánicos volátiles (COV)

y estaban situados a 50 y 300 metros de gasolineras. El otro colegio, que no se consideraba expuesto,

estaba situado a 450 metros. Con la excepción de MN, los biomarcadores de daño genotóxico fueron

en general más elevados (p>0,05) en el colegio situado a 50 metros de una gasolinera que, en el grupo

de control, aunque los resultados fueron menos claros en el colegio situado a 300 metros. Para todos

los biomarcadores (KR, CC, PN y KL), el colegio situado a 50 metros de la fuente de emisiones

presentaba mayores niveles de citotoxicidad (p <0,05). Este es el primer estudio que relaciona la

exposición a hidrocarburos volátiles de la gasolina con daños genotóxicos en niños, y sugiere

fuertemente la necesidad de modificar las leyes de urbanismo para frenar el deterioro de la salud

infantil.

Palabras clave: compuestos orgánicos volátiles, micronúcleos, anomalías nucleares,

estaciones de servicio, contaminación atmosférica

Todo el contenido de LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades,

publicado en este sitio está disponibles bajo Licencia Creative Commons.

Cómo citar: García Zarate, M. A., Arellano García, M. E., González Acevedo, Z. I., & Torres Bugarín, O.

(2024). Oral epithelial cells of schoolchildren exposed to air pollution may develop cytotoxic and

genotoxic damage. LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades 5 (4), 4084 –

4101. https://doi.org/10.56712/latam.v5i4.2550

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4086.

INTRODUCTION

School grounds air quality has received attention from professionals and researchers in the last few

years (USEPA, 2011). After their homes, school is the most important place for children’s development

since they spend more than 800 hours a year in them. In addition, children represent a potentially

vulnerable population and specifically susceptible to the exposure of contaminants which may affect

their health and performance as students (Neidell, 2004; Stafford, 2015; Annesi-Maesano, 2013;

Salthammer, 2016; Daisey, 2003).

The time of exposure to manifest symptoms or illness vary according to various factors such as society,

age and economy (Peled, 2011), as well as the type of contaminant such as carbon dioxide (CO2),

volatile organic compounds (VOC) and the particles (PM2.5 and PM10). These have been associated

with the development of respiratory problems and other adverse side effects in children (Madureira,

2015; Propper, 2015; Zhao, 2016).

The Health Secretariat of Mexico has been working on reducing preventable illness through vaccination

of children less than 8 years of age which protects them against 13 different illnesses. Even so,

nowadays researchers have shown that the incidence of illness in children with asthma, cancer,

leukemia, brain cancer, ADHD, diabetes and obesity (Safer Chemicals, Healthy Families de la Coalition,

2012), have been rising and this is directly linked to the exposure to chemical substances in the

environment (Pelallo-Martinez, 2014; Laborde, 2015; Di Renzo, 2015; Calderon-Garcidueñas, 2015; Liu,

2014; Currie, 2013). Therefore, eliminating this exposure to environmental chemical substances in

children is still a major objective for public health.

Environmentalists and advocates for vulnerable groups like children, older people and

immunocompromised people indicate that the development of public health policies do not take into

account children being exposed to chemical substances and federal authorities cannot see the deathly

effects the exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOC) can bring. Within the most prominent

compounds are benzene, ethylbenzene, toluene and xylene (BTEX) which individually create genotoxic,

cancerous, haematotoxic, nephrotoxic, neurotoxic effects or act as endocrine disruptors (ATSDR, 2004)

among the children in the urban area.

Children present biological characteristics that increase their vulnerability to the acute and chronic

effects of environmental toxins (Wild, 2003; Garry, 2004; Neri, 2006a) that may occur through various

means: inhalation, ingestion or dermic absorption, and it include the prenatal stage (Slate, 2011; Peters,

2014; Bailey, 2011; Garlantezec, 2009; Esplugues, 2007; Miligi, 2013). For example, childhood leukemia

is the most common type of cancer among children (Howlader et al., 2012); the most common type of

sarcoma is acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) which represents 78% of the cases in children; followed

by acute myeloid leukemia (AML) which constitutes 16% of leukemia cases in children (Ries et al.,

1999).

Various authors have reported a positive association to exposure of BTEX in the mother during

pregnancy due to the vulnerability of the fetus to some toxic agents in the environment where

chromosomal translocation in the blood has been identified in new born children (Wiemels et al., 1999;

Wiemels et al., 2002; Shrestha et al., 2014; Breslow et al., 1993; Selevan et al., 2000). Benzene, a

dangerous component found in gasoline, is a genotoxic group 1 human carcinogen (Loomis, 2017;

Tunsaringkarn, 2011). Prolonged exposure to low levels of benzene in work environment and the

environment (Roma-Torres, 2006), may lead to ruptured in the DNA, micronuclei and chromosomal

abnormality (Fracasso, 2010; Angelini, 2011). Therefore, the genotoxic effects of benzene could be

associated to DNA damage (Pandey, 2008).

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4087.

In this work, the cytotoxic and genotoxic damage has been measured through biomonitoring of the oral

mucus in groups of children and applying biomarkers through micronuclei (MN). This technique

enables the work with different types of cells such as epithelial cells (Lacerda, 2015; Acito 2022; Çelik,

2003; Carere, 1995; Benites, 2006; Hallare, 2009; Fenech M., 1993; Fenech M. et al., 1999; Fenech M.,

2000; Zalacain M. et al., 2005, Neri M. et al., 2006b; Fenech M. et al., 2007; Holland N. et al., 2008), to

determine the genotoxicity and damage to the DNA (Angelini, 2012; Bagryantseva, 2010; Rekhadevi,

2010) in the population exposed. Aside from the lack of regulation in the matter, the risk evaluation has

not been researched because there is a lack of data in the levels of benzene in the rest of the urban

population.

In this study, the relationship between air pollution and (chronic) human exposure to the contaminants

has been analyzed, focusing on the schools in which children remain from 5 to 7 hours daily (except for

weekends and holidays). The main intention is to evaluate the measure in which the exposure of people

to these contaminants seems to become affected while they remain in the area. A Geographic

Information System (GIS) has been used in order to investigate the relationship between environmental

factors and the damage incidences in micronuclei. The risk was estimated using the data on BTEX

distribution for each gas station (GS) in levels of AGEB and there was biomonitoring of 143 children of

school age in areas exposed and not exposed to GS. Lastly, there was a correlation between

determining the vulnerable areas and the genotoxic damage to define the risk. With this research, it is

expected to provide technical information to aid public policies that protect children living in the areas

potentially exposed to gas stations.

METHODOLOGY

Two procedures were performed to carry out this study. At the beginning, it was necessary to estimate

the amount of volatile organic compounds (VOC) by emissions from service stations in each school in

the urban area of Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico, using a geographic information system (GIS) with

QGIS software 3.34.5 On the other hand, to determine the biomarkers of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity

of school children, we followed the procedures of the oral micronucleus cytome assay (Fenech, 2007);

finally a nonparametric statistical analysis was applied to compare the cyto-genotoxic biomarkers of

children in school who are or are not exposed to VOC.

VOC in schools : To estimate the amount of volatile organic compounds (VOC) in each school, it was

necessary to build a database that was based on the annual sales reports of each service station for

the years 2010, 2011 and 2012, provided by the Mexican company that distributes fuels in Mexico

(Petróleos Mexicanos, PEMEX), and information on housing, population and urban equipment

contained in the units known as the Basic Geo-statistical Area (AGEB) compiled from the Statistics and

Geography National Institute (Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografia, INEGI) website. With these

two data sources it was possible to feed a geographic information system (GIS) with the software QGIS

3.34.5.

The emissions from gas stations were measured using the factor of emission (FE), which rises to

44.50x10-5 kg L-1 day-1, by Garcia-Zarate et al. (2015), which is the average quantity of volatile organic

compounds (VOC) that each gas station throws into the atmosphere in Baja California as a result of the

loading and unloading processes (Radian International 1996). This number was estimated based on

the chapter AP-42 published in the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA; method 18) of the United

States (US EPA, 1995, 1995ª; EPA, 1973, 2003). By other hand, the method used to determine the VOC

from area sources by the Secretariat of Labor and Social Benefits (Secretaria del Trabajo y Prevision

Social or STPS), NOM-010-STPS-1999. This estimator was important because it allowed for the risk

zones by gas station proximity to be determined according to the dispersion model resulting from the

annual sales volume and the weather conditions in the area of study.

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4088.

The values attained from the concentrations of normalized benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene

(BTEX) came as a result of the dispersion model, and using maps, the polygons with different risk levels

to the population and schools were gathered for each station within the urban area.

Similarly, data from the school’s potentially exposed and not exposed population, healthy children of

schooling age, enrolled in the levels of elementary and middle school in Ensenada, Baja California, was

incorporated. Figure 1 shows the location of the GS and schools, as well as the Unit of Support Services

or Regular Education (Unidades de Servicios de Apoyo a la Educacion Regular USAER-SEP) that helps

schools and students in need in Ensenada, Baja California. The selection of the groups of children to

make the biomonitoring of genotoxicity and cytotoxicity is based on this model.

Figure 1

Location of schools and USAER-SEP centers within a radius of 300m from the gas stations in the urban

area of Ensenada, Baja California

Biomonitoring of cytotoxicity and genotoxicity

In the second part of this study there was a biomonitoring of genotoxic damage in 143 children of

schooling age corresponding to three groups: the first two are considered exposed and the third as a

control group. The following criteria were considered to make the selection: approval from the children

and consent from their parents to include their children in the study. There was a micronuclei (MN)

assay on oral epithelial cells (Thomas, 2009; Bonassi, 2011) frequently used in evaluations of people

exposed to organic volatile compounds and another cito-genotoxic agents (Patlolla B. et al., 2005).

Briefly, each child rinsed their mouth twice using drinking water, there were two samples taken of the

exfoliated buccal cells by gently scraping the inside of the cheek, a extend was made in slide and dry

at air, fixated in 80% ethanol and staining with eosin and fast green. 2000 epithelial cells were read in

the smears with optical microscope at 100X registering the different biomarkers of genotoxic and

cytotoxic damage: micronuclei (MN), nuclear gems or broken eggs (NL), basal cells (BC), binucleated

cells (BN), condensate chromatin (CC), karyorrhexis (KR), karyolysis (KL) and Pyknosis (PN) (Torres-

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4089.

Bugarin, 2013, 2007; Holland et al., 2008; Heddle et al., 1991; Violante, 2012; Grover, 2012; Lacerda,

2015; Ceretti,, 2014; Feretti, 2014; Martins et al. 2009; Majer, 2001).

The amount of nuclear abnormalities was coded into an Excel© sheet. To guarantee homogeneity in

the variances and making the comparisons by confidence intervals viable, there was an arcsine

transformation of concepts and methodologies given by Bartlett (1936), Anscombe (1948) and

Zar (1984) for the variables distributed according to the Poisson distribution, based on the following

expression:





󰇛 





󰇜  

























The transformed data was analyzed using the Graph-Pad-Prism© v7 program and a Kruskal-Wallis test

with Bonferroni post hoc multiple comparison test was performed to compare the groups of children

being studied.

RESULTS

The children at the "Justo Sierra" school (Escuela Primaria Urbana Estatal “Justo Sierra”), located 50 m

from a gas station, formed the first group with 48 children exposed (n = 48), 18 children and 30 girls

with an average age of 10.17 ± 0.66. Group two was "Sec. 9" (Escuela Secundaria Urbana Estatal

Numero 9) at 300 m from the service station with 55 children exposed, 31 boys and 24 girls with an

average age of 13.96 ± 0.43. A third group consisting of 40 children was the control group (not exposed)

located 425 meters from the nearest service station with 23 children and 17 girls, with an average age

of 10.50 ± 0.43.

Following the suggestions of different authors (Kales, 1997; Horton, 2003; Terres, 2010; Silva 2009;

Santos, 2013; Karakitsios, 2007; Correa, 2012; Hystad, 2011; Beltrán, 1996; Zagal, 1996; CENAPRED,

2001; Arcos, 2007; Rivera, 2006), the type of pollutant, the type of exposure (point source or diffuse)

and the location of schools within a 300 m radius of each petrol station were used to determine the

level of exposure in the geographical scenarios of this study. It was found that many petrol stations in

cities are located close to residential buildings or educational institutions. The locations of the schools

with the highest emissions from petrol stations in relation to the emission factor are shown in Figure

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4090.

Figure 2

Location of schools in sampling

The increase in nuclear abnormalities could be due to regular exposure to gasoline vapours (BTEX)

from the GS, which contain genotoxic compounds and alter the structural make-up of all cells in the

bone marrow (Bukvic, 1998). They are also leukaemogenic and anaplastic, which has shown that there

is a significant difference in the rate of micronuclei and nuclear abnormalities between the population

exposed to BTEX in the environment from GS (Table I) and the unexposed group. In Justo Sierra, the

percentage of students of both sexes exposed to the contaminant (F/M) was 30/18 (65%/27%), while

in the unexposed group it was 17/23 (43%/57%).

Table 1

The mean frequency of micronuclei per 2000 cells of the buccal mucosa in the groups studied

MN / 2000

Group

Men

Women

Distance to GS

(m)

min

max

cases

Justo sierra

42%

Sec. No. 9

300

42%

UNEXPOSED

POPULATION

425

Exposure-induced damage to genetic material may lead to genotoxic or cytotoxic events in epithelial

cells where the primary chromosomal abnormalities required for classification have been observed.

According to the exposure to genotoxic and cytotoxic damage leading to cell death, such as necrosis

and apoptosis, Table II shows the mean and standard error for each cellular abnormality. (Filipo, 2018;

Ceretti, 2014).

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4091.

Table 2

Basic statistics for transformed variables by each one nuclear anomalies for three of children groups

Type of

damage

Biomarker

School

Mean

Standard

error

Inferior

Confidential

Limit (95%)

Superior

Confidential

Limit (95%)

Genotox

icity

Micronuclei

(MN)

Justo Sierra

0.22

0.57

1.43

Sec. 9

0.89

0.2

0.49

1.29

Control

0.65

0.24

0.19

1.12

Lobulated

Nucleus

(LN)

Justo Sierra

1.33

0.22

0.9

1.76

Sec. 9

Control

1.37

0.61

0.2

0.24

0.97

0.14

1.77

1.08

Effects

cellular

cycles

Binucleated

(BN)

Justo Sierra

2.74

0.22

2.31

3.17

Sec. 9

2.19

0.2

1.79

2.58

Control

1.3

0.24

0.83

1.77

Cytotoxi

city:

Necrosi

s and

Apoptos

Karyorrhexis

(KR)

Justo Sierra

Sec. 9

2.75

1.35

0.22

0.2

2.32

0.95

3.17

1.74

Control

1.16

0.24

0.69

1.63

Justo Sierra

6.52

0.22

6.09

6.95

Condensed

Chromatin

(CC)

Sec. 9

Control

3.95

0.68

0.2

0.24

3.55

0.22

4.35

1.15

Pyknosis

(PN)

Justo Sierra

3.17

0.22

2.74

3.6

Sec. 9

Control

2.33

1.14

0.2

0.24

1.93

0.67

2.73

1.61

Karyolysis

(KL)

Justo Sierra

2.93

0.22

2.51

3.36

Sec. 9

2.6

0.2

2.2

Control

0.24

1.54

2.47

The frequency of micronuclei and nuclear abnormalities in the control group is shown in graphic 1, and

the exposed groups - including the Justo Sierra and Sec. No. 9 boys - show that those exposed to BTEX

have significantly more DNA damage than the control group.

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4092.

Graphic 1

Biomarkers of genotoxic and cytotoxic damage in 2000 cells in children of the "Justo Sierra" and "Sec.

No. 9" groups and control

The vertical lines express the standard error P ± 0.95. The asterisks and "ns" indicate significance level

with the Bonferroni multiple comparisons test against the control group.

Analysis of exfoliated cells from buccal mucus reveals evidence of other nuclear changes, including

binucleated cells, karyorrhexis and karyolysis. According to Carlin et al (2010), the presence of

binucleated cells is thought to be a sign of cytotoxicity, DNA damage and cell death. In addition,

chromosomal abnormalities caused by DNA breakage are also thought to be caused by karyorrhexis

and karyolysis, which can result in both minor and major structural changes or be removed by the

mechanism of cellular repair through cell death, which is planned as an indicator of apoptosis (Tolbert,

1992). Only that children are more susceptible than adults has been suggested by previous research

(Lakhanisky, 1993; Laurent, 1993; Klemans, 1995).

Apoptotic cells differ from necrotic cells in that the latter undergo "passive" cell death, including a

rupture of the plasma membrane that releases intracellular material and triggers an inflammatory

response (Wyllie, 1980). On the other hand, apoptosis, also known as physiological death, is an active

process involving protein synthesis and characterised by cytoplasmic and nuclear condensation

(pyknosis). The final stage of internucleosomal fragmentation and DNA rupture occurs in the

cytoplasm, where there is nuclear chromatin condensation, nuclear disintegration, reduced damage,

cytoplasmic and organelle compaction, and a bubble-like membrane (Wyllie, 1984). On the other hand,

an increase in apoptosis could be a sign of genotoxic damage (Tolbert, 1992). It has been said that

apoptosis occurs by ionizing radiation, as well as, chemical compounds that attach to the DNA or by

genetic deregulation. It can also act as a recognition mechanism eliminating the cells with genetic

damage. In this way, the excess of apoptosis could indicate genotoxic damage (Tolbert, 1992).

Aneuploidies (both germinal and somatic) are associated with significant genetic changes linked to

spontaneous miscarriage, mental retardation and cancer, although rupture can lead to cell death

(Hagmar, 1994).

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4093.

CONCLUSIONS

The unplanned growth of urban areas has led to the inappropriate use of land for various economic

activities, which becomes problematic over time. The use of GIS can help predict the impact on

educational centres. Based on the distance from the GS, the vulnerability of schools is strongly related

to their location.

This is the first study carried out on a group of children using the MN test, from which we can say that

the genotoxic effect is caused by exposure to petrol emissions (BTEX). The test for micronuclei in

buccal epithelial cells is one of the most sensitive methods used to measure the rate of DNA damage

in the human population, as it is relatively easy to determine damage in micronuclei compared to other

methods, such as chromosomal aberrations. It can be used not only to identify groups at risk of

developing cancer, but also to identify individuals who are susceptible to developing cancer.

The results indicate that people exposed to the chemicals of the GS are groups at risk, taking into

account that they are strong mutagens and that the emission of these products has genotoxic and

cytotoxic properties, as demonstrated by Hadnagy (1988, 1989) in buccal cells. It was found that the

frequency of micronuclei and nuclear abnormalities, genotoxic damage and health consequences

increased with exposure, in correlation with the increasing number of petrol stations in urban areas.

The levels of apoptosis observed in this study are significantly higher in the exposed group, as observed

by Revazova et al. (2001). All the cytotoxic and mutagenic changes observed in this document are

related to the strength of petrol and its components, especially benzene.

The methodology used in the GIS is not difficult to apply and the results can be considered for

prevention, territorial planning and minimisation of risks due to the presence of GS within a radius of

300 m around schools.

These factors could contribute to a chronic exposure at low concentrations, posing a threat to the

health, productivity and efficiency of children in neighbouring schools, considered a public health issue

and detectable with genotoxicity tests.

The public health sector can play a major role in promoting the prevention of exposure to air pollution.

Improving air quality should be considered as an important part of public policy making in various

economic sectors. The effects on health are highly unequal: air pollution combines with other aspects

to create a disproportionate morbidity burden for low-income groups. All this should be taken into

account when designing and implementing long-term policies and programmes to reduce air pollution

and improve overall health. The results suggest the need for environmental policies to reduce the

burden of GHS, which results from neglecting the vulnerability of children when setting limits for

exposure to pollutants in urban areas. It is known that among the most serious diseases are genetic

diseases caused by genotoxic effects on somatic cells, such as cancer. It is therefore very important

to publicise these studies in order to encourage the public authorities to inform themselves of the

possible health risks when authorising filling stations and to find solutions that could help to maintain

the environmental balance in urban areas.

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4094.

REFERENCES

Angelini, S., Kumar, R., Bermejo, J. L., Maffei, F., Barbieri, A., Graziosi, F., & Hrelia, P. (2011). Exposure to

low environmental levels of benzene: evaluation of micronucleus frequencies and S-phenylmercapturic

acid excretion in relation to polymorphisms in genes encoding metabolic enzymes. Mutation

Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 719(1), 7-13.

Angelini, S., Maffei, F., Bermejo, J. L., Ravegnini, G., L’Insalata, D., Cantelli-Forti, G., & Hrelia, P. (2012).

Environmental exposure to benzene, micronucleus formation and polymorphisms in DNA-repair genes:

a pilot study. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 743(1), 99-104.

Annesi-Maesano, I., Baiz, N., Banerjee, S., Rudnai, P., Rive, S., & SINPHONIE Group. (2013). Indoor air

quality and sources in schools and related health effects. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental

Health, Part B, 16(8), 491-550.

Anscombe, F. J. (1948). The transformation of Poisson, binomial and negative-binomial

data. Biometrika, 35(3/4), 246-254.

Arcos, M., Treviño, C., Espinosa, B., Balboa, R. y Medina, E. (2007). Riesgos químicos, 1ª edición, Centro

Nacional de Prevención de Desastres, Secretaría de Gobernación, D. F., México.

ATSDR (2004). Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Interaction Profile for Benzene,

Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and Xylenes (BTEX). Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services;

2004 May. Retrieved from http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/interactionprofiles/IP-btex/ip05.pdf.

Bagryantseva, Y., Novotna, B., Rossner Jr, P., Chvatalova, I., Milcova, A., Svecova, V., & Sram, R. J. (2010).

Oxidative damage to biological macromolecules in Prague bus drivers and garagemen: impact of air

pollution and genetic polymorphisms. Toxicology letters, 199(1), 60-68.

Bailey, H. D., de Klerk, N. H., Fritschi, L., Attia, J., Daubenton, J. D., Armstrong, B. K., & Milne, E. (2011).

Refuelling of vehicles, the use of wood burners and the risk of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in

childhood. Paediatric and perinatal epidemiology, 25(6), 528-539.

Benites, C. I., Amado, L. L., Vianna, R. A. P., & da Graça Martino-Roth, M. (2006). Micronucleus test on

gas station attendants. Genetics and Molecular Research, 5(1), 45-54.

Bartlett, M. (1936). The square root transformation in analysis of variance. Supplement to the Journal

of the Royal Statistical Society, 3(1), 68-78.

Bonassi, S., Coskun, E., Ceppi, M., Lando, C., Bolognesi, C., Burgaz, S., ... & Carnesoltas, D. (2011). The

HUman MicroNucleus project on eXfoLiated buccal cells (HUMNXL): The role of life-style, host factors,

occupational exposures, health status, and assay protocol. Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation

Research, 728(3), 88-97.

Breslow, N., Olshan, A., Beckwith, J. B., & Green, D. M. (1993). Epidemiology of Wilms tumor. Medical

and pediatric oncology, 21(3), 172-181.

Beltran, L. (1996). Evaluación de la peligrosidad en un parque industrial (Caso de estudio: Ciudad

Industrial del Valle de Cuernavaca, Mor.). Tesis de Maestría en Ingeniería Ambiental. División de

Estudios de Posgrado de la Facultad de Ingeniería, UNAM. México.

Bukvic, N., Bavaro, P., Elia, G., Cassano, F., Fanelli, M., & Guanti, G. (1998). Sister chromatid exchange

(SCE) and micronucleus (MN) frequencies in lymphocytes of gasoline station attendants. Mutation

Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 415(1), 25-33.

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4095.

Calderón-Garcidueñas, L., Kulesza, R. J., Doty, R. L., D'Angiulli, A., & Torres-Jardón, R. (2015). Megacities

air pollution problems: Mexico City Metropolitan Area critical issues on the central nervous system

pediatric impact. Environmental research, 137, 157-169.

Carlin, V., Artioli, A. J., Matsumoto, M. A., Borgo, E., Oshima, C. T. F., & Ribeiro, D. A. (2010).

Biomonitoring of DNA damage and cytotoxicity in individuals exposed to cone beam computed

tomography. Dentomaxillofacial Radiology. 39: 295-299.

Carere, A., Antoccia, A., Crebelli, R., Degrassi, F., Fiore, M., Iavarone, I., ... & Zijno, A. (1995). Genetic

effects of petroleum fuels: cytogenetic monitoring of gasoline station attendants. Mutation

Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 332(1), 17-26.

Ceretti, E., Feretti, D., Viola, G. C. V., Zerbini, I., Limina, R. M., Zani, C., ... & Gelatti, U. (2014). DNA damage

in buccal mucosa cells of pre-school children exposed to high levels of urban air pollutants. PLoS

One, 9(5), e96524.

Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres – CENAPRED (2001). Diagnóstico de Peligros e

Identificación de Riesgos de Desastres en México: Atlas Nacional de Riesgos de la República Mexicana,

1ª edición, Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres, Secretaría de Gobernación, D. F., México.

Çelik, A., Çavaş, T., & Ergene‐Gözükara, S. (2003). Cytogenetic biomonitoring in petrol station

attendants: micronucleus test in exfoliated buccal cells. Mutagenesis, 18(5), 417-421.

Loomis, D., Guyton, K. Z., Grosse, Y., El Ghissassi, F., Bouvard, V., Benbrahim-Tallaa, L., ... & Straif, K.

(2017). Carcinogenicity of benzene. The Lancet Oncology, 18(12), 1574-1575.

Correa SM, Arbilla G, Marques MRC, Oliveira KMPG, (2012). The impact of BTEX emissions from gas

stations into the atmosphere. Atmospheric Pollution Research; 3: 163-9.

Currie, J. (2013). Pollution and Infant Health. Child development perspectives, 7(4), 237-242.

Daisey, J. M., Angell, W. J., & Apte, M. G. (2003). Indoor air quality, ventilation and health symptoms in

schools: an analysis of existing information. Indoor air, 13(1), 53-64.

Acito, M., Fatigoni, C., Villarini, M., & Moretti, M. (2022). Cytogenetic effects in children exposed to air

pollutants: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research

and Public Health, 19(11), 6736.

Di Renzo, G. C., Conry, J. A., Blake, J., DeFrancesco, M. S., DeNicola, N., Martin, J. N.,... & Woodruff, T. J.

(2015). International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics opinion on reproductive health impacts

of exposure to toxic environmental chemicals. International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 131(3),

219-225.

Environmental Protection Agency, EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency, (1973).Guide

for compiling a comprehensive emission inventory. Washington, D.C;

Environmental Protection Agency, EPA, (2003). Air Quality Index. A guide to Air quality and your health.

Washington: EPA, (EPA-454/k-03-002)

Esplugues, A., Fernández-Patier, R., Aguilera, I., Iñíguez, C., García Dos Santos, S., Aguirre Alfaro, A., &

Ballester, F. (2007). Exposición a contaminantes atmosféricos durante el embarazo y desarrollo

prenatal y neonatal: protocolo de investigación en el proyecto INMA (Infancia y Medio Ambiente).

Gaceta Sanitaria, 21(2), 162-171.

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4096.

Fenech, M. (1993). The cytokinesis-block micronucleus technique: a detailed description of the method

and its application to genotoxicity studies in human populations. Mutation Research/Fundamental and

Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 285(1), 35-44.

Fenech, M. (2007). Cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome assay. Nature protocols, 2(5), 1084-1104.

Fenech, M., Holland, N., Chang, W. P., Zeiger, E., & Bonassi, S. (1999). The HUman MicroNucleus

Project—an international collaborative study on the use of the micronucleus technique for measuring

DNA damage in humans. Mutation Research/Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of

Mutagenesis, 428(1), 271-283.

Fenech, M. (2000). The in vitro micronucleus technique. Mutation Research/Fundamental and

Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis, 455(1), 81-95.

Feretti, D., Ceretti, E., De Donno, A., Moretti, M., Carducci, A., Bonetta, S., ... & MAPEC_LIFE Study Group.

(2014). Monitoring air pollution effects on children for supporting public health policy: the protocol of

the prospective cohort MAPEC study. BMJ open, 4(9), e006096.

Filho, A. P., Silveira, M. A., do Nascimento, C. B., & d’Arce, L. P. (2018). Integrative study of cell damage

and cancer risk in gas station attendants. International journal of environmental health research, 28(1),

1-7.

Fracasso, M. E., Doria, D., Bartolucci, G. B., Carrieri, M., Lovreglio, P., Ballini, A., ... & Manno, M. (2010).

Low air levels of benzene: correlation between biomarkers of exposure and genotoxic effects.

Toxicology letters, 192(1), 22-28.

García-Zarate MA, Arellano García ME, Daessle Heuser LW, Villada Canela M, Quintero Núñez (2015).

Mapa cualitativo para el análisis de riesgo por BTEX por proximidad con gasolineras en la ciudad de

Ensenada, Baja California, México. Revista de Salud Ambiental, 15(1), 4-12.

Garlantézec, R., Monfort, C., Rouget, F., & Cordier, S. (2009). Maternal occupational exposure to solvents

and congenital malformations: a prospective study in the general population. Occupational and

environmental medicine, 66(7), 456-463.

Garry, V. F. (2004). Pesticides and children. Toxicology and applied pharmacology, 198(2), 152-163.

Grover, S., Mujib, A., Jahagirdar, A., Telagi, N., & Kulkarni, P. G. (2012). A comparative study for selectivity

of micronuclei in oral exfoliated epithelial cells. Journal of Cytology, 29(4), 230.

Hadnagy, W., & Seemayer, N. H. (1988). Cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of extract of particulate

emission from a gasoline‐powered engine. Environmental Mutagenesis, 12(4), 385-396.

Hadnagy, W., & Seemayer, N. H. (1989). Genotoxicity of particulate emissions from gasoline-powered

engines evaluated by short-term bioassays. Experimental pathology, 37(1), 43-50.

Hagmar, L., Brøgger, A., Hansteen, I. L., Heim, S., Högstedt, B., Knudsen, L., ... & Reuterwall, C. (1994).

Cancer risk in humans predicted by increased levels of chromosomal aberrations in lymphocytes:

Nordic study group on the health risk of chromosome damage. Cancer research, 54(11), 2919-2922.

Hallare, A. V., Gervasio, M. K. R., Gervasio, P. L. G., & Acacio-Claro, P. J. B. (2009). Monitoring

genotoxicity among gasoline station attendants and traffic enforcers in the City of Manila using the

micronucleus assay with exfoliated epithelial cells. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 156(1-

4), 331-341.

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4097.

Heddle, J. A., Cimino, M. C., Hayashi, M., Romagna, F., Shelby, M. D., Tucker, J. D., ... & MacGregor, J. T.

(1991). Micronuclei as an index of cytogenetic damage: past, present, and future. Environmental and

molecular mutagenesis, 18(4), 277-291.

Holland, N., Bolognesi, C., Kirsch-Volders, M., Bonassi, S., Zeiger, E., Knasmueller, S., & Fenech, M.

(2008). The micronucleus assay in human buccal cells as a tool for biomonitoring DNA damage: the

HUMN project perspective on current status and knowledge gaps. Mutation Research/Reviews in

Mutation Research, 659(1-2), 93-108.

Horton, D. K., Berkowitz, Z., Haugh, G. S., Orr, M. F. y Kaye, W. E. (2003). “Acute public health

consequences associated with hazardous substances released during transit, 1993-2000”, Journal of

Hazardous Materials, Vol. 98, No.1-3, pp. 161-175.

Howlader, N., Noone, A. M., Krapcho, M., Neyman, N., Aminou, R., Altekruse, S. F., & Mariotto, A. (2012).

SEER cancer statistics review, 1975–2009 (vintage 2009 populations). Bethesda, MD: National Cancer

Institute; 2012. Lung cancer.

Hystad, P., Setton, E., Cervantes, A., Poplawski, K., Deschenes, S., Brauer, M., Demers, P. 2011). Creating

national air pollution models for population exposure assessment in Canada. Environmental health

perspectives, 119(8), 1123.nei

Kales, S. N., Polyhronopoulos, G. N., Castro, M. J., Goldman, R. H. y Christiani, D. C. (1997). “Injuries

caused by hazardous materials accidents”, Annals of Emergency Medicine, Vol. 30, No. 5, pp. 598-603.

Karakitsios, S.P., Delis, V.K., Kassomenos, P.A., Pilidis, G.A., (2007). Contribution to ambient benzene

concentrations in the vicinity of petrol stations: estimation of the associated health risk. Atmospheric

Environment; 41, 1889 -1902

Klemans, W., Vleminckx, C., Schriewer, L., Joris, I., Lijsen, N., Maes, A.,... & Ros, Y. (1995). Cytogenetic

biomonitoring of a population of children allegedly exposed to environmental pollutants Phase 2:

Results of a three-year longitudinal study. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology, 342(3), 147-156.

Lacerda, L. P., Dantas, E. B., dos Santos Cerqueira, G., Peron, A. P., & Castro, J. M. (2015). Occupational

toxicology study emphasizing the cytotoxic and mutagenic activity among workers exposed to

gasoline. Biotemas, 28(3), 135-141.

Laborde, A., Tomasina, F., Bianchi, F., Bruné, M. N., Buka, I., Comba, P., ... & Iavarone, I. (2015). Children's

health in Latin America: the influence of environmental exposures. Environmental Health Perspectives

(Online), 123(3), 201.

Lakhanisky, T., Bazzoni, D., Jadot, P., Joris, I., Laurent, C., Ottogali, M., ... & Vleminckx, C. (1993).

Cytogenetic monitoring of a village population potentially exposed to a low level of environmental

pollutants. Phase 1: SCE analysis. Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology, 319(4), 317-323.

Laurent, C., Lakhanisky, T., Jadot, P., Joris, I., Ottogali, M., Planard, C., ... & Ros, Y. (1993). Increased

sister chromatid exchange frequencies observed in a cohort of inhabitants of a village located at the

boundary of an industrial dumping ground: phase I. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 2(4),

355-362.

Liu, J., & Lewis, G. (2014). Environmental toxicity and poor cognitive outcomes in children and adults.

Journal of environmental health, 76(6), 130.

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4098.

Madureira, J., Paciência, I., Rufo, J., Ramos, E., Barros, H., Teixeira, J. P., & de Oliveira Fernandes, E.

(2015). Indoor air quality in schools and its relationship with children's respiratory

symptoms. Atmospheric Environment, 118, 145-156.

Majer, B. J., Laky, B., Knasmüller, S., & Kassie, F. (2001). Use of the micronucleus assay with exfoliated

epithelial cells as a biomarker for monitoring individuals at elevated risk of genetic damage and in

chemoprevention trials. Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research, 489(2), 147-172.

Martins RA, Gomes GA, Aguiar O Jr, Ribeiro DA (2009) Biomonitoring of oral epithelial cells in petrol

station attendants: comparison between buccal mucosa and lateral border of the tongue. Environ Int

35:1062–1065

Miligi, L., Benvenuti, A., Mattioli, S., Salvan, A., Tozzi, G. A., Ranucci, A.,... & SETIL Working Group. (2013).

Risk of childhood leukaemia and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma after parental occupational exposure to

solvents and other agents: the SETIL Study. Occupational and environmental medicine, oemed-2012.

Neidell, M. J. (2004). Air pollution, health, and socio-economic status: the effect of outdoor air quality

on childhood asthma. Journal of health economics, 23(6), 1209-1236.

Neri, M., Bonassi, S., Knudsen, L. E., Sram, R. J., Holland, N., Ugolini, D., & Merlo, D. F. (2006a). Children's

exposure to environmental pollutants and biomarkers of genetic damage: I. Overview and critical

issues. Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation Research, 612(1), 1-13.

Neri, M., Ugolini, D., Bonassi, S., Fucic, A., Holland, N., Knudsen, L. E., & Merlo, D. F. (2006b). Children's

exposure to environmental pollutants and biomarkers of genetic damage: II. Results of a

comprehensive literature search and meta-analysis. Mutation Research/Reviews in Mutation

Research, 612(1), 14-39.

NOM-010-STPS-1999 Secretaría de Trabajo y Previsión Social. Norma Oficial Mexicana, condiciones de

seguridad e higiene en los centros de trabajo donde se manejen, transporten, procesen o almacenen

sustancias químicas capaces de generar contaminación en el medio ambiente laboral. Diario Oficial de

la Federación 13 de marzo de 2000.

Pandey, A. K., Bajpayee, M., Parmar, D., Kumar, R., Rastogi, S. K., Mathur, N. ... & Dhawan, A. (2008).

Environmental and molecular mutagenesis, 49(9), 695-707.

Pelallo-Martínez, N. A., Batres-Esquivel, L., Carrizales-Yáñez, L., & Díaz-Barriga, F. M. (2014). Genotoxic

and hematological effects in children exposed to a chemical mixture in a petrochemical area in Mexico.

Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology, 67(1), 1-8.

Peled, R. (2011). Air pollution exposure: Who is at high risk?. Atmospheric Environment, 45(10), 1781-

1785.

Peters, S., Glass, D. C., Greenop, K. R., Armstrong, B. K., Kirby, M., Milne, E., & Fritschi, L. (2014).

Childhood brain tumours: associations with parental occupational exposure to solvents. British journal

of cancer.

Patlolla, B. P., Patlolla, A. K., & Tchounwou, P. B. (2005). Cytogenetic effects of 1, 1-dichloroethane in

mice bone marrow cells. International journal of environmental research and public health, 2(1), 101-

106.

Propper, R., Wong, P., Bui, S., Austin, J., Vance, W., Alvarado, A. ... & Luo, D. (2015). Ambient and emission

trends of toxic air contaminants in California. Environmental science & technology, 49(19), 11329-

11339.

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4099.

Radian International (1996). "Manuales del programa de inventarios de emisiones de México: Vol. 3 -

Técnicas básicas de estimación de emisiones" . Sacramento, CA.

Rekhadevi, P. V., Rahman, M. F., Mahboob, M., & Grover, P. (2010). Genotoxicity in filling station

attendants exposed to petroleum hydrocarbons. Annals of Occupational Hygiene, 54(8), 944-954.

Revazova, J., Yurchenko, V., Katosova, L., Platonova, V., Sycheva, L., Khripach, L.... & Zhurkov, V. (2001).

Cytogenetic investigation of women exposed to different levels of dioxins in Chapaevsk town.

Chemosphere, 43(4), 999-1004.

Ries, L. A. G., Smith, M. A., Gurney, J. G., Linet, M., Tamra, T., Young, J. L., & Bunin, G. (1999). Cancer

incidence and survival among children and adolescents: United States SEER Program 1975-

1995. Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents: United States SEER Program

1975-1995.

Rivera, R., Arcos, M., Izcapa, C., Bravo, E., Bernabé, L., Muñoz, E., Torres, L., Zepeda, O., Andrade, E. y

López, L. (2006). Guía Básica para la Elaboración de Atlas Estatales y Municipales de Peligros y

Riesgos: Fenómenos Químicos, 1ª edición, Centro Nacional de Prevención de Desastres, Secretaría de

Gobernación, D.F., México.

Roma-Torres, J., Teixeira, J. P., Silva, S., Laffon, B., Cunha, L. M., Méndez, J., & Mayan, O. (2006).

Evaluation of genotoxicity in a group of workers from a petroleum refinery aromatics plant. Mutation

Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environmental Mutagenesis, 604(1), 19-27.

Safer Chemicals, Healthy Families Coalition. (2012). Chemicals and our health: Why recent science is

a call to action. Retrieved from http://saferchemicals.org/PDF/chemicals-and-our-health-july-2012.pdf

Salthammer, T., Uhde, E., Schripp, T., Schieweck, A., Morawska, L., Mazaheri, M., ... & Viana, M. (2016).

Children's well-being at schools: impact of climatic conditions and air pollution. Environment

international, 94, 196-210.

Santos, M. D. A., Tavora, B. E., Koide, S., & Caldas, E. D. (2013). Human risk assessment of benzene

after a gasoline station fuel leak. Revista de Saúde Pública, 47(2), 335-344.

cSelevan, S. G., Kimmel, C. A., & Mendola, P. (2000). Identifying critical windows of exposure for

children's health. Environmental health perspectives, 108(Suppl 3), 451.

Shrestha, A., Ritz, B., Wilhelm, M., Qiu, J., Cockburn, M., & Heck, J. E. (2015). Prenatal exposure to air

toxics and risk of Wilms’ tumor in 0-5 year old children. Journal of occupational and environmental

medicine/American College of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 56(6), 573.

Silva, F.L.D., dos Santos, J.R., Moita, J.M., da Silva, R.L.G.D., Flumignan, D.L., de Oliveira, J.E. 2009.

Determination of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes in commercial gasoline from Piaui State.

Quimica Nova 32, 56-U64

Slate, M. E., Linabery, A. M., Spector, L. G., Johnson, K. J., Hilden, J. M., Heerema, N. A. & Ross, J. A.

(2011). Maternal exposure to household chemicals and risk of infant leukemia: a report from the

Children’s Oncology Group. Cancer Causes & Control, 22(8), 1197-1204.

Stafford, T. M. (2015). Indoor air quality and academic performance. Journal of Environmental

Economics and Management, 70, 34-50.

Terres, I.M.M., Minarro, M.D., Ferradas, E.G., Caracena, A.B., Rico, J.B. 2010. Assessing the impact of

petrol stations on their immediate surroundings. Journal of Environmental management 91, 2754-2762

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4100.

Thomas, P., Holland, N., Bolognesi, C., Kirsch-Volders, M., Bonassi, S., Zeiger, E., ... & Fenech, M. (2009).

Buccal micronucleus cytome assay. Nature protocols, 4(6), 825.

Tolbert, P. E., Shy, C. M., & Allen, J. W. (1992). Micronuclei and other nuclear anomalies in buccal

smears: methods development. Mutation Research/Environmental Mutagenesis and Related

Subjects, 271(1), 69-77.

Torres-Bugarín, O., Covarrubias-Bugarín, R., Zamora-perez, A. L., Torres-Mendoza, B., García-Ulloa, M., &

Martínez-Sandoval, F. (2007). Anabolic-Androgenic Steroids Induce Micronuclei in Buccal Mucosa Cells

of Body Builders. British journal of sports medicine.

Torres-Bugarín, O., & Ramos-Ibarra, M. L. (2013). Utilidad de la prueba de micronúcleos y anormalidades

nucleares en células exfoliadas de mucosa oral en la evaluación de daño genotóxico y citotóxico.

International Journal of Morphology, 31(2), 650-657.

Tunsaringkarn, T., Suwansaksri, J., Soogarun, S., Siriwong, W., Rungsiyothin, A., Zapuang, K., & Robson,

M. (2011). Genotoxic monitoring and benzene exposure assessment of gasoline station workers in

metropolitan Bangkok: sister chromatid exchange (SCE) and urinary trans, trans-muconic acid (t, t-

MA). Asian Pac J Cancer Prev, 12(1), 223-7.

US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency), (1995). Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission

Factors AP–42. 5th Edition, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, NC.

US EPA (The United States Environmental Protection Agency), (1995a). Compilation of Air Pollutant

Emission Factors—Stationary Point and Area Sources. Research Triangle Park, NC, AP–42.

US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). (2011). Background Indoor Air Concentrations of

Volatile Organic Compounds in North American Residences (1990–2005): A Compilation of Statistics

for Assessing Vapor Intrusion. Washington, DC: Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.

Violante, E. Z., García, E. A., Ojinaga, L. C., Heusser, W. D., Von-Glascoe, C., Aguilera, J. C. L., & Ruiz, B.

R. (2012). Daño genético y exposición a plaguicidas en trabajadores agrícolas del Valle de San Quintín,

Baja California, México. Revista de Salud Ambiental, 12(2), 93-101.

Wiemels, J. L., Cazzaniga, G., Daniotti, M., Eden, O. B., Addison, G. M., Masera, G., ... & Greaves, M. F.

(1999). Prenatal origin of acute lymphoblastic leukaemia in children. The Lancet, 354(9189), 1499-

1503.

Wiemels, J. L., Xiao, Z., Buffler, P. A., Maia, A. T., Ma, X., Dicks, B. M. ... & Pritchard-Jones, K. (2002). In

utero origin of t (8; 21) AML1-ETO translocations in childhood acute myeloid leukemia. Blood, 99(10),

3801-3805.

Wild, C. P., & Kleinjans, J. (2003). Children and increased susceptibility to environmental carcinogens

evidence or empathy?. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 12(12), 1389-1394.

Wyllie, A. H., Kerr, J. R., & Currie, A. R. (1980). Cell death: the significance of apoptosis. International

review of cytology, 68, 251-306.

Wyllie, A. H., Morris, R. G., Smith, A. L., & Dunlop, D. (1984). Chromatin cleavage in apoptosis: association

with condensed chromatin morphology and dependence on macromolecular synthesis. The Journal of

pathology, 142(1), 67-77.

Zagal, J. (1996). Método de evaluación de riesgos en accidentes químicos. Memorias del Simposio

regional sobre preparativos para emergencias y desastres químicos: Un reto para el siglo XXI. OPS /

LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, Asunción, Paraguay.

ISSN en línea: 2789-3855, agosto, 2024, Volumen V, Número 4 p 4101.

OMS. División de Salud y Ambiente. Programa de preparativos para situaciones de emergencia y

coordinación de socorro en casos de desastre. México, D.F., Diciembre.

Zalacain, M., Sierrasesumaga, L., & Patiño, A. (2005). El ensayo de micronúcleos como medida de

inestabilidad genética inducida por agentes genotóxicos. In Anales del sistema sanitario de

Navarra (Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 227-236). Gobierno de Navarra. Departamento de Salud.

Zar, J.H., 1984. Biostatistical Analysis. Second Edition. Prentice-Hall Inc., Nueva Jersey, 718 pp.

Zhao, P., Cheng, Y. H., Lin, C. C., & Cheng, Y. L. (2016). Effect of resin content and substrate on the

emission of BTEX and carbonyls from low-VOC water-based wall paint. Environmental Science and

Pollution Research, 23(4), 3799-3808.

Todo el contenido de LATAM Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales y Humanidades, publicados en este sitio está

disponibles bajo Licencia Creative Commons .